The Green Knight and the Arthurian Cycles

Caption:  Russian Fairy Tale Tile

The history of the Arthur legend is quite astounding.  That might be the best place to start, however, with the wealth of material of which Sir Gawain is a part.

Some of the Most Important Texts

Caption:  Horse Riders beneath the Castle  from a Book of Hours

From the earliest historian, Bede

Bede, or Baeda in Old English, was born about 672 or 673 A.D. in Northumbria, an Anglian kingdom north of the river Humber. He was probably not of noble birth.  At age seven, kinsmen delivered him to the nearby gates of the monastery at Wearmouth, located at the mouth of the river Wear.

Of the situation of Britain and of Ireland, and of their ancient Inhabitants.

Britain, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, was formerly called Albion, and lies opposite to the principal parts of the continent of Europe, at some distance from Germany, Gaul and Spain. It is 800 miles in length, and only about 200 . . . . The island is very fertile in corn, fruit, and trees, and abounds in pasture for cattle. It also produces vines in some places, and is plentifully supplied with land and water fowls, of different kinds; and is remarkable for brooks and rivers well stored with fish; particularly with salmon and eels. The surrounding sea affords seals, dolphins, and whales; besides many sorts of shell-fish; among which are oysters, and in them are often found excellent pearls of all colours, viz. red, pale, violet, and green; but they are mostly of a white colour.

The island was formerly embellished with 28 well-built cities, besides innumerable castles, all of which were also strongly fortified with walls, towers, gates, and bulwarks. As it is situated almost under the North pole, the days are so long in summer, that even at midnight in the northern parts a kind of twilight continues. But, in the winter, the nights for the same reason are very long, the darkness continuing for 17 or 18 hours; whereas in Armenia, Macedon, Italy, and other countries, in the same latitude, the longest day or night extends but to 15 hours, and the shortest to 9.

There are at present five different languages spoken in this island, viz. the British, the English, the Scotch, and those of the Picts and of the Latins, according to the different nations who at various periods have taken possession of it, and who all profess the same Christian faith, and the sublime morality of the gospel. The Latin language in particular, on account of their continual application to the study of the scriptures, is become common everywhere.

At first, this country had no other inhabitants but the Britons, from whom it derived its name, who sailing from Brittany, [now called the Department of Finisterre,] successfully invaded the southern coasts; and, when they had conquered the greatest part of it, it happened that the nation of the Picts, coming from Scythia, as it is reported, in a few ships, were driven by a storm entirely beyond all the coasts of Britain, and as far as the northern coasts of Ireland; where disembarking and finding the nation of the Scots, they requested to be allowed to settle amongst them, but could not obtain permission. (Ireland is the greatest island next to Britain, and situated to the westward of it.) The Picts, arriving here, as I just now observed, petitioned the inhabitants to grant them permission to establish themselves as a colony amongst them. The Scots answered that the island was not large enough to contain them
both; but we can give you good advice added they; for we know there is another island, not far eastward from ours, which we can frequently see in clear weather. If you will go to it, you may easily establish yourselves there, or, if they should oppose you, employ us as auxiliaries. The Picts accordingly, sailing over to Britain, began to inhabit the northern parts of it; for the Britons were now possessed of the southern.

Caption:  Medieval Depiction of Bede

Later, from Book One, Chapter Fourteen

In the mean time, a dreadful plague suddenly attacked this wicked race, and in a short time
destroyed so many of them, that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead; yet could not those who survived, be raised from the spiritual death which they had incurred by sin, either by the fortunate death of their friends or the fear of their own. For which reason, not long afterwards, a more severe vengeance also fell upon this sinful nation for their horrid impiety: for, holding a consultation with their king Vortigern, what they should do, or where they should seek for assistance, to prevent or repel the cruel and frequent incursions of the northern nations, they unanimously determined to call over the Saxon nation from beyond the seas to their aid: which, as the event soon after clearly shewed, happened by the disposition of the providence of God, designing to punish them for their manifold crimes.

the early record of Arthurian Lore

Gildas, De Excidio Britanniae (The Ruin of Britain). Written about 540. When the Romans left the British Isles, they left the Britons more or less without defenses against the Germanic warriors, like the Angles and the Saxons, who were a constant threat. Eventually the Germanic peoples displaced the Britons and pushed them west into Wales and Ireland. Gildas, who sounds like an Old Testament prophet, takes the position that the Britons were only suffering the consequences of their sins. In this context Gildas tells about how a remnant of beleaguered Britons rallied round a leader, Ambrosius Aurelianus a Roman who stayed behind and who seems to have led the Britons in a victory at Badon Hill ( Mons Badonicus) in about the year 497.  According to Gildas that victory, while being the last for the Britons, was a great one.  It was doubtless charged with all kinds of patriotic significance.

"to utter destruction, took arms under the conduct of Ambrosius Aurelianus, a modest man, who of all the Roman nation was then alone in the confusion of this troubled period by chance left alive. His parents, who for their merit were
adorned with the purple, kind been slain in these same broils, and now his progeny in these our days, although shamefully degenerated from the worthiness of their ancestors, provoke to battle their cruel conquerors, and by the goodness of our Lord obtain the victory."

The Gododdin (c. 600). A series of Welsh laments about further reverses at the hands of the English, mentions the name 'Arthur' as if Arthur were already the type of the great warrior.

"Nennius", Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) (c.800). This book names Arthur , calls him a dux bellorum (leader of wars), and the leader in a series of twelve battles that had their climax at Badon Hill, where Arthur is said to have accounted personally for 960 of the enemy.  So here is the first connection made between Gildas' Badon Hill and Arthur.

The Historia Brittonum Two Volumes in Latin from the Historical Text Archive:


Annales Cambriae (Annals of Wales) (c. 955). This work contains two entries: one for the year 518 reports that Arthur fought at Badon Hill and wore a cross on his shield. The entry for 539 reports that Arthur and Medraut (Mordred) died at the battle of Camlann.  So here are some dates in conflict.

William of Malmsbury, Gesta Regum Anglorum (Deeds of the English Kings) ( 1125). Here we learn again that Arthur fought against the barbarians and slew 900 of them at Badon Hill.  William suggests that some of the accounts of Arthur are mere fictions.

Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Brittaniae (History of the Kings of Britain)(1138).

Caption:  Knights on Crusade

Liber enim librum aperit. One text opens another.

Arthurian Timeline

I would like to thank Rod Hampton, founder-publisher of Britannia, for this timeline.
The TimeLine is at <http://www.britannia.com/history/timearth.html>  

63 - Joseph of Arimathea came to Glastonbury on the first Christian mission to Britain. Legend says that he brought with him the Holy Grail, which was either a cup/bowl or two "cruets" thought to contain the blood and sweat of the crucified Christ.
184 - Lucius Artorius Castus, commander of a detachment of Sarmatian conscripts stationed in Britain, led his troops to Gaul to quell a rebellion. This is the first appearance of the name, Artorius, in history and some believe that this Roman military man is the original, or basis, for the Arthurian legend. The theory says that Castus' exploits in Gaul, at the head of a contingent of mounted troops, are the basis for later, similar traditions about "King Arthur," and, further, that the name "Artorius" became a title, or honorific, which was ascribed to a famous warrior in the fifth century.
383 - Magnus Maximus (Macsen Wledig), a Spaniard, was proclaimed Emperor in Britain by the island's Roman garrison. With an army of British volunteers, he quickly conquered Gaul, Spain and Italy.
388 - Maximus occupied Rome itself. Theodosius, the eastern Emperor, defeated him in battle and beheaded him in July, 388, with many of the remnant of Maximus' troops settling in Armorica. The net result to Britain was the loss of many valuable troops needed for the island's defense (the "first migration").
395 - Theodosius, the last emperor to rule an undivided empire, died, leaving his one son, Arcadius, emperor in the East and his other son, the young Honorius, emperor in the West. At this point the office of Roman Emperor changed from a position of absolute power to one of being merely a head of state.
396 - The Roman general, Stilicho, acting as regent in the western empire during Honorius' minority, reorganized British defenses decimated by the Magnus Maximus debacle. Began transfer of military authority from Roman commanders to local British chieftains.
397 - The Roman commander, Stilicho, comes to Britain and repels an attack by Picts, Irish and Saxons.
402 - Events on the continent force Stilicho to recall one of the two British legions to assist with the defense of Italy against Alaric and the Visigoths. The recalled legion, known as the Sixth Victrix, was said by Claudian (in "De Bello Gallico," 416) to be "that legion which is stretched before the remoter Britons, which curbs the Scot, and gazes on the tattoo-marks on the pale face of the dying Pict." The barbarians were defeated, this time, at battle of Pollentia.
403 - Victricius, Bishop of Rouen, visited Britain for the purpose of bringing peace to the island's clergy,
who were in the midst of a dispute, possibly over the Pelagian heresy.
405 - The British troops, which had been recalled to assist Stilicho, were never returned to Britain as they had to stay in Italy to fight off another, deeper penetration by the barbarian chieftain, Radagaisus.
406 - In early January, 406, a combined barbarian force (Suevi, Alans, Vandals & Burgundians) swept into central Gaul, severing contact between Rome and Britain. In autumn 406, the remaining Roman army in Britain decided to mutiny. One Marcus was proclaimed emperor in Britain, but was immediately assassinated.
407 - In place of the assassinated Marcus, Gratian was elevated "to the purple," but lasted only four months.  Constantine III was hailed as the new emperor by Roman garrison in Britian. He proceeded to follow the example of Magnus Maximus by withdrawing the remaining Roman legion, the Second Augusta, and crossing over into Gaul to rally support for his cause. Constantine's departure could be what Nennius called "the end of the Roman Empire in Britain. . ."
408 - With both Roman legions withdrawn, Britain endures devastating attacks by the Picts, Scots and Saxons.
409 - Prosper, in his chronicle, says, "in the fifteenth year of Honorius and Arcadius (409), on account of  the languishing state of the Romans, the strength of the Britons was brought to a desperate pass." Under enormous pressure, Britons take matters into their own hands, expelling weak Roman officials and fighting for themselves.
410 - Britain gains "independence" from Rome. The Goths, under Alaric, sack Rome.
413 - Pelagian heresy said to have begun, by Prosper (Tiro) of Aquitaine in his "Chronicle."
420-30 - Pelagian heresy outlawed in Rome (418), but in Britain, enjoys much support from "pro-Celtic" faction. Traditionalists (pro-Romans) support Roman church. During this time, according to Prosper, Britain is ruled by petty "tyrants."
429 - At the request of Palladius, a British deacon, Pope Celestine I dispatches bishops Germanus of Auxerre and Lupus of Troyes to Britain to combat Pelagian heresy. While in Britain, Germanus, a former military man, leads Britons to "Hallelujah" victory in Wales.
c.438 - Probable birth of Ambrosius Aurelianus, scion of the leading Romano-British family on the island.
c.440-50 - Period of civil war and famine in Britain, caused by ruling council's weakness and inability to deal with Pictish invasions; situation aggravated by tensions between Pelagian/Roman factions. Vacated towns and cities in ruin. Migration of pro-Roman citizens toward west. Country beginning to be divided, geographically, along factional lines.
c.441 - Gallic Chronicle records, prematurely, that "Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed into the power of the Saxons."
c.445 - Vortigern comes to power in Britain.
446 - Britons (probably the pro-Roman party) appeal to Aetius, Roman governor of Gaul, for military assistance in their struggle against the Picts and the Irish (Scots). No help could be sent, at this time, as Aetius had his hands full with Attila the Hun.
c.446 - Vortigern authorizes the use of Saxon mercenaries, known as foederati, for the defense of the
northern parts against barbarian attack. To guard against further Irish incursions, Cunedda and his sons are moved from Manau Gododdin in northern Britain to northwest Wales.
447 - Second visit of St. Germanus (this time accompanied by Severus, Bishop of Trier) to Britain. Was this visit spiritually motivated, to combat a revived Pelagian threat or was Germanus sent in Aetius' stead, to do whatever he could to help the desperate Britons?
c.447 - Britons, aroused to heroic effort, "inflicted a massacre" on their enemies, the Picts and Irish, and were left in peace, for a brief time. Could this heroic effort have been led, again, by St. Germanus?
c.448 - Death of St. Germanus in Ravenna. Civil war and plague ravage Britain.
c.450 - In the first year of Marcian and Valentinian, Hengest arrives on shores of Britain with "3 keels" of warriors, and are welcomed by Vortigern. This event is known in Latin as the "adventus Saxonum," the coming of the Saxons.
c.452 - Increasing Saxon settlement in Britain. Hengest invites his son, Octha, from Germany with "16 keels" of warriors, who occupy the northern lands, to defend against the Picts. Picts never heard from, again.
c.453 - Increasing Saxon unrest. Raids on British towns and cities becoming more frequent.
c.456 - Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us of a probably fictitious, but entirely believable event in which Saxons massacre 300 leading British noblemen at phony "peace" conference. Ambrosius' father, possibly the leader of the pro-Roman faction, may have been killed either during the Saxon uprising or this massacre.
c.457 - Death of Vortigern. Vitalinus (Guitolinus) new leader of pro-Celtic Pelagian faction. Battle of Aylesford (Kent) in which Ambrosius, along with sons of Vortigern, Vortimer and Cateyrn, defeat Hengest for the first time.
c.458 - Saxon uprising in full-swing. Hengest finally conquers Kent, in southeastern Britain.
c.458-60 - Full-scale migration of British aristocrats and city-dwellers across the English Channel to Brittany, in northwestern Gaul (the "second migration"). British contingent led by Riothamus (perhaps a title, not a name), thought by some to be the original figure behind the legends of Arthur.
c.460-70 - Ambrosius Aurelianus takes full control of pro-Roman faction and British resistance effort; leads Britons in years of back-and-forth fighting with Saxons. British strategy seems to have been to allow Saxon landings and to then contain them, there.
c.465 - Arthur probably born around this time.
c.466 - Battle of Wippedesfleot, in which Saxons defeat Britons, but with great slaughter on both sides.  Mutual "disgust and sorrow" results in a respite from fighting "for a long time."
c.466-73 - Period of minimal Saxon activity. Refortification of ancient hillforts and construction of the Wansdyke possibly takes place during this time.
c.469 - Roman emperor, Anthemius, appeals to Britons for military help against the Visigoths. Reliable accounts by Sidonius Apolonaris and Jordanes name the leader of the 12,000 man British force, Riothamus. The bulk of the British force was wiped out in battle against Euric, the Visigothic king, and the survivors, including Riothamus, vanished and were never heard from, again.
c.470 - Battle of Wallop (Hampshire) where Ambrosius defeats Vitalinus, head of the opposing faction.  Ambrosius assumes High-kingship of Britain.
473 - Men of Kent, under Hengest, move westward, driving Britons back before them "as one flees fire."
477 - Saxon chieftain, Aelle, lands on Sussex coast with his sons. Britons engage him upon landing but his superior force drives them into the forest (Weald). Over next nine years, Saxon coastal holdings are gradually expanded in Sussex.
c.480 - "Vita Germani," the Life of St. Germanus, written by a continental biographer, Constantius.
c.485-96 - Period of Arthur's "twelve battles" during which he gains reputation for invincibility.
486 - Aelle and his sons overreach their normal territory and are engaged by Britons at battle of Mercredesburne. Battle is bloody, but indecisive, and ends with both sides pledging friendship.
c.490 - Hengest dies. His son, Aesc, takes over and rules for 34 years.
c.495 - Cerdic and Cynric, his son, land somewhere on the south coast, probably near the Hampshire-Dorset border.
c.496 - Britons, under overall command of Ambrosius and battlefield command of the "war leader" Arthur, defeat Saxons at the Siege of Mount Badon.
c.496-550 - Following the victory at Mt. Badon, the Saxon advance is halted with the invaders returning to their own enclaves. A generation of peace ensues. Corrupt leadership, more civil turmoil, public forgetfulness and individual apathy further erode Romano-British culture over next fifty years, making Britain ripe for final Saxon "picking."
c.501 - The Battle of Llongborth (probably Portsmouth), where a great British chieftain, Geraint, King of Dumnonia, was killed. Arthur is mentioned in a Welsh poem commemorating the battle.
508 - Cerdic begins to move inland and defeats British king Natanleod near present-day Southampton.
c.515 - Death of Aelle. Kingdom of Sussex passed to his son, Cissa and his descendents, but over time, diminished into insignificance.
519 - Kingdom of the West Saxons (Wessex) founded with Cerdic its first ruler.
c.530-40 - Mass migration of Celtic monks to Brittany (the "third migration").
534 - Death of Cerdic. Cynric takes kingship of Wessex.
c.540 - Probable writing of Gildas' "De Excidio Britanniae."
c.542 - Battle of Camlann, according to Annales Cambriae. Death (or unspecified other demise) of Arthur (according to Geoffrey of Monmouth).
c.547 - "Yellow" Plague hits British territories, causing many deaths. Ireland also affected. Saxons, for whatever reason, are unaffected by it.
c.570 - Probable death of Gildas.
c.600 - Welsh bard, Aneirin, writes poem, Y Gododdin, alluding to Arthur's prowess as a warrior.
c.600-700 - Original Welsh triads probably composed; only later, medieval collections survive.
c.830 - Nennius compiles Historia Brittonum.
c.890 - Compilation of Anglo Saxon Chronicle is begun, perhaps at the direction of Alfred the Great.
c.970 - Annales Cambriae compiled.
c.1019 - Earliest possible date of composition for the Legend of St. Goeznovius, a Breton legend, which, in its preface, mentions Arthur and calls him the King of the Britons. Date is disputed as some scholars think this legend should be dated later than Geoffrey of Monmouth.
c.1090 - Professional hagiographers, such as Caradoc of Llancarfan, Lifris and others, write various saints lives, some (St. Gildas, St. Padarn, St. Cadog, St. Iltud) include mentions of Arthur and his exploits.
1125 - William of Malmesbury completes "Gesta Regum Anglorum" (Deeds of the Kings of England), in which he states, "this is that Arthur of whom the trifling of the Britons talks such nonsense, even today; a man clearly worthy not to be dreamed of in fallacious fables, but to be proclaimed in veracious histories. as one who long sustained his tottering country and gave the shattered minds of his fellow citizens an edge for war."
The "Gesta" is significant, not only for the information it contains, but also for the fact that in its later editions (the third edition was written in the 1130's), William includes long passages lifted verbatim from the "De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae." All original manuscripts of the "De Antiquitate" are now lost and the only ones that remain are corrupt later interpolations. These interpolations were produced with the idea of supporting Glastonbury Abbey's connections with certain legendary characters (e.g. Joseph of Arimathea, King Arthur, Melkin, St. Patrick). From the "Gesta" we can see what William had actually written in the "De Antiquitate."
c.1129 - William of Malmesbury in residence at Glastonbury Abbey, where he writes "De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae," a history of the abbey.
1129 - Henry of Huntingdon's "Historia Anglorum" is based on Bede, Nennius and the AngloSaxon Chronicle.
1136 - Geoffrey of Monmouth publishes the famous "Historia Regum Britanniae" (History of the Kings of Britain), in Latin. His work would be used as the standard text on British history for the next 600 years. 1139 - In a letter to Warinus, Henry of Huntingdon describes Arthur's last battle and mentions that the Bretons say that he didn't die and are still waiting for his return..
c.1145 - Geoffrey Gaimar publishes "Estoire des Angles" (History of the English), a French adaptation of Geoffrey's "History," which is now lost.
1151 - Geoffrey of Monmouth appointed to bishopric of St. Asaph in Wales, but never actually visits there.
1155 - Master (Robert) Wace completes "Roman de Brut," a version of Geoffrey's "History" in French. He dedicated his work to Eleanor of Aquitaine, the wife of Henry II, and is remembered as being the first writer to introduce the concept of the "Round Table" to the Arthurian cycle. Of Arthur, Wace says,
"I know not if you have heard tell the marvellous gestes and errant deeds related so often of King Arthur. They have been noised about this mighty realm for so great a space that the truth has turned to fable and an idle song. Such rhymes are neither sheer bare lies, nor gospel truths. They should not be considered either an idiot's tale, or given by inspiration. The minstrel has sung his ballad, the storyteller told over his tale so frequently, little by little he has decked and painted, till by reason of his embellishment the truth stands hid in the trappings of a tale. Thus to make a delectable tune to your ear, history goes masking as fable."
c.1160-80 - Marie de France writes "Lais" (Lays), a collection of short poems. Two of the poems, "Chevrefueil" and "Lanval," include Arthurian characters and themes.
c.1160-90 - Chretien de Troyes, the greatest of the medieval romance writers, makes his five contributions to the Arthurian cycle during this period. His Arthurian works are: "Eric et Enide," "Cliges" "Le Chevalier de la Charette" (The Knight of the Cart, or Lancelot), "Yvain" (or Le Chevalier au Lion, The Knight with the Lion) and "Perceval" (Le Conte del Graal, The Story of the Graal). Chretien's work is noteworthy, not only for its quality, but for the introduction and further development of certain characters and themes into the Arthurian literature. He is, also, the first to apply the literary form of the romance, to the transmission of the stories of Arthur. It is Chretien who first tells us of the Grail (Graal), but he never equated it with the cup of the Last Supper or the cup used to catch the blood of Christ. The word, grail, a commonly used term in the middle ages, simply referred to a dish or plate of a particular kind. One Helinand of Froidmont wrote in the 13th century
". . .a wide and somewhat deep dish in which expensive meats are customarily placed for the rich. . .and it is commonly called a grail" (Lacy, Norris J., ed., The Arthurian Encyclopedia, Peter Bedrick Books, New York, 1986, p.257). Chretien used the grail as a symbol of beauty and mystery, but he never presented it as an object of religious devotion (the spiritual aspect was introduced by later writers).
Chretien de Troyes is remembered as the first writer to give the name of Camelot to Arthur's headquarters and capital city. He, also, is responsible for the introduction of the famous knights, Lancelot, Gawain and Perceval, into the literature of Arthurian legend.
c.1170 - Beroul, a French poet, writes "Roman de Tristan," believed to be one of the earliest extant versions of the story of Tristan and Yseult, and independent of any other versions. The story, as told by Beroul, is connected with the mainstream of Arthurian legend through its chief antagonist, King Mark of Cornwall. The mention of the church of St. Samson in Cornwall, as the wedding place of Mark and Yseult, provides some basis for localizing the legend around the area of Fowey. Dating of "Roman de Tristan" is somewhat uncertain and may have been written a few years later.
c.1175 - Thomas d'Angleterre, an Anglo-Norman, writing in England, produces poem, "Tristan," which would later inspire Gottfried von Strassburg's poem of the same name. Thomas' poem, with Beroul's, is one of only two twelfth century Old French tellings of the Tristan and Yseult story.
A writer, known as the monk of Ursicampum, enlarged the chronicle of Siegebert of Gembloux and raised, perhaps for the first time, the possibility that King Arthur may have been the historical British king Riothamus. This same equation, although in far less direct terms, was made subsequently by the writers of the "Chronicles of Anjou" and the "Salzbury Annals," and by Albericus Trium Fontium (1227-51), Martinus Polonus (c.1275), Jacques de Guise (late 14th C.) and Philippe de Vigneulles (1525). In a 1799 work called the "History of the Anglo Saxons," Sharon Turner equates Arthur with Riothamus and in modern times, Professor Leon Fleuriot and Geoffrey Ashe are the main champions of the idea.
1184 - Great fire ravages Glastonbury Abbey destroying Old Church.
1190 - Discovery of Arthur's grave between two pyramids in cemetary at Glastonbury Abbey.
c.1190 - Layamon (pronounced "lawmon"), a priest of Arley Regis, Worcestershire, publishes "Brut," an English translation of Wace into alliterative verse. Although the dating of "Brut" is uncertain, his work marks the first appearance of the Arthurian story in English.
1192-3 - Gerald of Wales visits Glastonbury, reports on exhumation of Arthur's grave in "Liber de Principis Instructione."
c.1195-1205 - Hartmann von Aue, a German court poet, produces two Arthurian romances, "Erek" and "Iwein," inspired by Chretien's "Eric et Enide" and "Yvain." Hartmann is the first to introduce Arthurian literature to Germany.
c.1198 - William of Newburgh writes "Historia Rerum Anglicarum," a history of Britain beginning with the Conquest of 1066. The preface, however, tries to place Arthur in a historical context and uses the works of Gildas and Bede to harshly criticize Geoffrey of Monmouth's claims for him, concluding that Arthur and Merlin are fictitious.
c.1200 - "The Dream of Rhonabwy," last of the Mabinogion tales to be completed, takes place in the time of the historical character, Madawg, son of Maredudd, king of Powys, who died in 1159. Tale refers to Arthur as Emperor, and compares glories of his legendary kingdom with hardships of twelfth century Wales.
c.1200-10 - Wolfram von Eschenbach, the greatest of the German epic poets, produces "Parzifal," his masterful expansion of Chretien's "Perceval." Wolfram's epic would, centuries later, become the inspiration for Wagner's 1882 opera, "Parsifal."
c.1210 - Robert de Boron, in "Joseph d'Arimathie" and "Estoire del Saint Graal," is responsible for transforming Chretien's "grail" into "The Holy Grail." Robert saw something spiritual in Chretien's secular grail and transformed it into the cup which Joseph of Arimathea allegedly used to catch the blood dripping from Christ's crucifixion wounds, and the object of many "Quests" undertaken by Arthur's knights. Robert is the first to claim that Joseph and his family brought the Grail to unspecified parts of Britain. Subsequent accounts localized it in the vicinity of Glastonbury.
Gottfried von Strassburg produces, "Tristan," the classic version of the love story, basing it on Thomas d'Angleterre's earlier poem. Wagner would use Gottfried's work as basis for his 1859 opera of the same name.
c.1210-30 - Vulgate (Lancelot-Grail) Cycle, a series of Arthurian tales, in French, which attempt to tell the whole history of the Grail and to recount the quests of the Grail knights. During this period, stories transition from verse to prose, and as change progresses, material takes on more historical and religious overtones. Cycle included: "Estoire del Saint Graal," Estoire de Merlin," "Lancelot du Lac" (also Roman du Lancelot), "Queste del Saint Graal" and "Mort Artu."
c.1216 - Gerald of Wales writes his second, and slightly different, account of the discovery of Arthur's grave in "Speculum Ecclesiae."
c.1220 - Ralph of Coggeshall mentions discovery of Arthur's grave in his "English Chronicle."
c.1250 - Mabinogion, a collection of eleven Welsh folk tales and legends (some of which mention Arthur), takes final form, although some scholars argue for a much earlier date of c.1000. Collection includes such well-known tales as Culhwch and Olwen, "The Dream of Rhonabwy," "Gereint and Enid," "The Dream of Maxen" "Branwen Daughter of Llyr," "Peredur Son of Evrawg," etc.
"Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin" (Black Book of Carmarthen) compiled. Thought to be the work of one scribe, possibly working at the Priory of St John at Carmarthen, it contains 38 items, almost all poetry, including: Englynion y Beddau, Gereint fab Erbin, religious verses and "Merlin" poems.
Interpolated version of William of Malmesbury's "De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae" written by
Glastonbury monks (probably Adam of Domerham), including much questionable material never included in William's original work.
1278 - Edward I and Queen Eleanor of Castille visit Glastonbury Abbey to officially reinter the remains of Arthur and Guinevere in the new abbey church. King Arthur's cross is placed on top of the black marble tomb. Edward proclaims his son, Edward of Caernarvon, Prince of Wales, and positions himself as the legitimate successor of Arthur.
1300 - In Robert of Gloucester's "Chronicle" he states that the Britons of Wales had been converted to Christianity by Phagan and Deruvian (middle 2nd Century), who had built the first church in England at Glastonbury.
c.1300 - A chronicle of Margam Abbey (Wales) tells of the discovery of Arthur's grave.
1307 - Publication of Peter Langtoft's "Chronicle," which updates Geoffrey of Monmouth's "History" through Edward I's reign. In it he praises Arthur as the greatest of kings.
c.1325 - "Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch" (White Book of Rhydderch), an incomplete version of Mabinogion, contains "Culhwch and Olwen," the "Dream of Macsen Wledig" and many religious texts. A portion of the original manuscript is now lost.
c.1340 - "Joseph of Arimathie," an alliterative poem written in English, pays particular attention to Joseph's activities after the Resurrection of Christ and portrays him as an Apostolic evangelist as well as the keeper of the Grail.
c.1350 - "Cronica sive Antiquitates Glastoniensis Ecclesiae" (Chronicle or Antiquities of the Church of Glastonbury), by John Seen, a monk of Glastonbury, continuing the history of the abbey originally begun by William of Malmesbury 220 years before. Much Arthurian material is here, including an account of the discovery of his grave and a prophecy of Melkin, allegedly a 5th century British bard, in which the grail and the grave of Joseph of Arimathea are said to have been at Glastonbury.
c.1370-90 - Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales" are believed to have been written during this period. Two of the tales, the Squire's and the Wife of Bath's, make direct references to Arthurian characters or themes.
c.1400 - "Llyfr Coch Hergest" (Red Book of Hergest), the earliest complete version of the Mabinogion, is one of the most important Welsh medieval manuscripts. At 362 folios, it is the largest. The manuscript is dated between 1382 and 1410, and contains examples of many kinds of Welsh literature, excepting only the laws and religious texts. It includes: the "History of the Kings of Britain" of Geoffrey of Monmouth, "Brut y Tywysogyon," a series of Triads, "Gereint fab Erbin", "The Dream of Rhonabwy" and others. Its contents are similar to those of Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch.
c.1430 - John Capgrave, a friar at King's Lynn, Norfolk, publishes "De Sancto Joseph ab Aramathea," in which he states, quoting from an unnamed manuscript,
"Philip sent from a Gaul a hundred and sixty disciples to assist Joseph and his companions."  But, it was not until the third edition (composed in the late 15th c.) of his "Nova Legenda Angliae," printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1516, that a life of St. Joseph of Arimathea was included.
c.1450 - Herry Lovelich's "History of the Holy Grail," the first English translation of the French Vulgate tale, "Estoire del Saint Graal." In the Vulgate, Josephes, Joseph's son is the protagonist in the British portion of the tale. In Lovelich's version, the emphasis is switched to Joseph of Arimathea and his conversion activities in Britain, but his connection with the Grail is diminished. "Llyfr Gwyn Hergest" (the White Book of Hergest) may have been a manuscript of some importance. Several descriptions of its contents indicate that it contained: "Y Bibyl Ynghymraec," the "Laws," a copy of the "Statute of Rhuddlan," and strict metre poetry. It was destroyed by fire in the nineteenth century. Partial transcripts are preserved in both the British Library and the National Library of Wales.
1465 - John Hardyng completes his "Chronicle," blending Glastonbury and Grail traditions in the process. He connects Arthur and Joseph of Arimathea, whom he credits with constructing the original Round Table. The "Chronicle" brings Joseph to Britain in 76 AD, after a 42 year period of imprisonment, and attributes to him the conversion of the land to Christianity. Hardyng's work is an indication of the extent to which the Glastonbury traditions of Joseph and Arthur had integrated themselves into the mainstream.
1469-70 - Completion of "Morte d'Arthur" by Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel, Warwichshire, while in London's Newgate Prison. Malory's work is the definitive English Arthurian romance and embodies many earlier French and Welsh tradtitions. He accepts Joseph of Arimathea's association with Glastonbury, but distances him from the Grail.
1482 - "Polychronicon," the most popular source of world history available in England, published by Ranulf Higden, a Benedictine monk from Cheshire. In it he questioned Geoffrey of Monmouth's basis for his claims of Arthur's continental conquests.
1485 - William Caxton's first printing of Malory's "Morte d'Arthu," giving wider circulation to the
Glastonbury, Arthur and Joseph traditions.
c.1533-39 - "Itinerary," the modern title given to the collection of notes made by John Leland, Henry VIII's court antiquary, during his extensive travels for the purpose of documenting the historical treasures of England. There are several items of Arthurian significance: in his notes on the county of Somerset, Leland relates a tradition equating the ancient hillfort, Cadbury Castle, with King Arthur's Camelot; also in Somerset, Leland tells us that "a bridge of four stone arches which is known as Pomparles (over the River Brue near Glastonbury) is the place where, "according to legend, that King Arthur cast his sword into it;" in his Cornwall notes, Leland discusses a river in the Camelford area. He says, "in some histories it is called Cablan. It was beside this river that Arthur fought his last battle (Camlann), and evidence of this, in the form of bones and harness, is uncovered when the site is ploughed."
1534 - Polydore Vergil completes "Anglica Historia" in which he is critical of Geoffrey of Monmouth's history, in general, and his portrayal of Arthur, in particular. He even goes so far as to question Arthur's existence.
1539 - Dissolution of Glastonbury Abbey, after which Arthur's burial cross is said to have lain in the "Reverstry" of St. John Baptist, Glastonbury (according to a late 17th century document, Bodleian Rawlinson B.416A, folio 10v) for approximately a hundred years.
1544 - Leland publishes "Assertio Inclytissimi Arturii" (Assertions of the Renowned Arthur), a compilation of most of the archaeological and literary evidence for King Arthur, as it was known in Tudor England. Here, Leland notes the inscription on the burial cross, allegedly belonging to King Arthur's grave, found at Glastonbury. The editor of the "Assertio" commented that "his disquisition upon Arthur is more notable for heat than light."
1599 - Edmund Spenser dies leaving his Arthurian poem, "The Faerie Queene," unfinished. In it Arthur portrays "magnanimity," to Spenser's mind, the leading virtue.
1607 - Publication of William Camden's "Britannia," including illustrations of King Arthur's Burial Cross.
c.1650 - Puritans chop down original Glastonbury Thorn on Wearyall Hill, said to have grown from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea, which, legend says, he planted upon his arrival there in AD 63.
1691 - "King Arthur," an opera written by John Dryden with music by Henry Purcell, told the tale of Arthur's battles with the (fictitious) Saxon leader, Oswald.
1695, 1697 - Richard Blackmore writes "Prince Arthur" and "King Arthur," two transparently allegorical verse epics incorporating Christian moral themes. In the poems, Arthur is William III; his antagonist, Octa, is James II, and so on.
c.1700-20 - The burial cross of King Arthur vanishes from history in the early 18th century. It was last known to be in the possession of one William Hughes, Chancellor of the cathedral of Wells.
1809 - Sir Walter Scott anonymously publishes "The Bridal of Triermain," a curious blending of Arthurian legend and the Sleeping Beauty story.
1822 - William Wordsworth writes "The Egyptian Maid," a poem featuring Merlin and the Lady of the Lake.
1840 - Arthurian poems by Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Merlin I" and " Merlin II".
c.1850-c.1900 - Gothic Revival inspired many poetic and literary works based on Arthur and Arthurian themes and embodying Victorian moral attitudes and neo-chivalric enthusiasms.
1859 - Richard Wagner completes the opera, "Tristan und Isolde."
1882 - Wagner's opera, "Parsifal," is performed.
1889 - Mark Twain publishes "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court."
1893-4 - Aubrey Beardsley contributes over 400 black and white drawings to illustrate John M. Dent's
edition of Malory's Morte d' Arthur.
1903-10 - Howard Pyle illustrates "The Story of King Arthur and His Knights" and other similar stories.

And now we begin to see the power of the oral story, and why we call it "Romance"!

1998 - "Merlin," a TV mini-series produced by Robert Halmi, starring Sam Neill in the title role; loosely following Geoffrey of Monmouth in some parts and in others, purely original. Nice scenery, interesting characterization of Merlin, great special effects, but a bit too Hollywood.

Caption:  Festival Parade for the Green Knights

The May jaunt, a pageant celebrating the "joli mois de Mai" in which one had to wear green garments known as livrée de mai. The riders are young noblemen and women, with princes and princesses being visible.  In the background is a chateau thought to be the Palais de la Cité in Paris.

The pictures in this exhibition are from the calendar section of the Très Riches Heures. This was painted some time between 1412 and 1416 and is arguably the most beautiful part of the manuscript; it is certainly the best known, being one of the great
art treasures of France.

From the Book of the Holy Grail

"Merlin saith that in Britain the Great a Wolf shall come from the White Launde. Twelve sharp teeth shall he have, six below and six above. He shall have so fierce a look that he shall chase the Leopard forth of the White Launde, so much force shall he have and great virtue. We now know that Merlin said this for Fulke the son of Waryn, for each of you ought to understand of a surety how in the time of the King Arthur that was called the White Launde which is now named the White Town. For in this country was the chapel of S. Austin that was fair, where Kahuz, the son of Ywein, dreamed that he carried off the candlestick and that he met a man who hurt him with a knife and wounded him in the side. And he, on sleep, cried out so loud that King Arthur hath heard him and awakened from sleep. And when Kahuz was awake, he put his hand to his side. There hath he found the knife that had smitten him through. SO TELLETH US THE GRAAL, THE BOOK OF THE HOLY VESSEL. There the King Arthur recovered his bounty and his valour when he had lost all his chivalry and his virtue. From this country issued forth the Wolf as saith Merlin the Wise, and the twelve sharp teeth have we known by his shield. He bore a shield indented as the heralds have devised. In the shield are twelve teeth of gules and argent. By the Leopard may be known and well understood King John, for he bore in his shield the leopards of beaten gold."

INCIPIT.

Hear ye the history of the most holy vessel that is called Graal, wherein the precious blood of the Saviour was received on the day that He was put on rood and crucified in order that He might redeem His people from the pains of hell. Josephus set it in remembrance by annunciation of the voice of an angel, for that the truth might be known by his writing of good knights, and good worshipful men how they were willing to suffer pain and to travail for the setting forward of the Law of Jesus Christ, that
He willed to make new by His death and by His crucifixion.

TITLE I.

The High Book of the Graal beginneth in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. These three Persons are one substance, which is God, and of God moveth the High Story of the Graal. And all they that hear it ought to understand it, and to forget all the wickednesses that they have in their hearts. For right profitable shall it be to all them that shall hear it of the heart. For the sake of the worshipful men and good knights of whose deeds shall remembrance be made, doth Josephus recount this holy history, for the sake of the lineage of the Good Knight that was after the crucifixion of Our Lord. Good Knight was he without fail, for he was chaste and virgin of his body and hardy of heart and puissant, and so were his conditions without wickedness. Not boastful was he of speech, and it seemed not by his cheer that he had so great courage; Natheless, of one little word that he delayed to speak came to pass so sore mischances in Greater Britain, that all the islands and all the lands fell thereby into much sorrow, albeit thereafter he put them back into gladness by the authority of his good knighthood. Good knight was he of right, for he was of the lineage of Joseph of Abarimacie. And this Joseph was his mother's uncle, that had been a soldier of Pilate's seven years, nor asked he of him none other guerdon of his service but only to take down the body of Our Saviour from hanging on the cross. The boon him seemed full great when it was granted him, and full little to Pilate seemed the guerdon; for right well had Joseph served him, and had he asked to have gold or land thereof, willingly would he have given it to him. And for this did Pilate make him a gift of the Saviour's body, for he supposed that Joseph should have dragged the same shamefully through the city of Jerusalem when it had been taken down from the cross, and should have left it without the city in
some mean place. But the Good Soldier had no mind thereto, but rather honoured the body the most he might, rather laid it along in the Holy Sepulchre and kept safe the lance whereof He was smitten in the side and the most Holy Vessel wherein they that believed on Him received with awe the blood that ran down from His wounds when He was set upon the rood. Of this lineage was the Good Knight for whose sake is this High History treated.

From the Mabinogion

OWAIN OR THE LADY OF THE FOUNTAIN
(Translation by Lady Charlotte Guest)

Caption:  Russian Fairy Tale Tile

There is only one contemporary Arthurian source that can be examined today. "Concerning the Ruin of Britain", or "De Excidio Britanniæ" was written by the Northern British monk, St.Gildas, in the mid-6th century.  Unfortunately, Gildas was not a historian. He was only interested in lamenting the loss of the Roman way of life and reproaching the British leaders (Constantine, Aurelius Caninus, Vortepor, Cuneglasus & Maglocunus) who had usurped Imperial power and degraded Christian values. There is no reference to Arthur, but Gildas does make reference to a character called "The Bear."  He praises Ambrosius Aurelianus and also mentions the Siege of Mount Badon, though not the name of the victor.  Gildas' writings are dated immediately prior to 549 (the death of Maglocunus, one of his usurpers). The passage telling of Badon places the siege forty-four years before this. This places Arthur firmly around the turn of the 6th century.

Caption:  Nobles at a feast

THE GREENE KNIGHT

in Middle English

The Greene Knight Edited by Thomas Hahn
Originally Published in Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales
Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University for TEAMS, 1995

List! wen Arthur he was King,
He had all att his leadinge
The broad Ile of Brittaine.
England and Scottland one was,
And Wales stood in the same case,
The truth itt is not to layne.

He drive allyance out of this Ile.
Soe Arthur lived in peace a while,
As men of mickle maine,
Knights strove of their degree,
Which of them hyest shold bee;
Therof Arthur was not faine.

Hee made the Round Table for their behove,
That none of them shold sitt above,
But all shold sitt as one,
The King himselfe in state royall,
Dame Guenever our Queene withall,
Seemlye of body and bone.

Caption:  Armies of the Crusades

the entire text of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (in readable, contemporary English)

end  Lecture VII.

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